Aggression and Domestic Abuse

Domestic abuse is defines as a coercive and controlling behavior within a family that can be life-threatening (CFJ, 2018). Aggression on the other hand is defined as behavior that is intended to hurt others, be it physical or verbal (Myers & Twenge, 2016). Based on the given definitions, it is easy to conclude that domestic abuse is simply aggressive behavior in a family context, which is a scary and irritating notion, given that the family should be a safe haven from the world’s burdens.

To properly dissect the problem of domestic abuse, the biopsychosocial model (Engle, 1981) will be used, due to the complexity of the topic and the diversity of triggers of aggression that are biological, psychological, and social (Myers & Twenge, 2016).

The causes of domestic violence are varied and usually overlap (CFJ, 2018). One cause, which can be explained through the biopsychosocial model, is the need of a partner, which is usually a male to assert dominance through aggression over the other partner (Lothstein, 2015). This assertion of dominance is linked biologically to high levels of testosterone (Myers & Twenge, 2016); psychologically to the frustration aggression theory, where hostility is redirected from an intimidating source that has caused the abuser frustration and pain to the spouse (Myers & Twenge, 2016); socially to the media influences of traditional gender roles, where males should be assertive and dominant while females submissive (Twenge & Campbell, 2017).

Another cause is when the abuser has experienced domestic abuse as a child, or has witnessed a parent or relative being domestically abused (Kanopy , 2016). This cause can also be psychologically linked to the frustration aggression theory, since the original source of frustration is in the past and usually unknown (Myers & Twenge, 2016). It can also be socially linked to social learning theory, which states that social behavior is learned by children through observation and mirroring (Myers & Twenge, 2016). Biologically, research in the field of genetics indicates that aggression can be encoded in genes and inherited from aggressive ancestors (Lubke, McArtor, Boomsma, & Bartels, 2018).

There are a variety of other causes of aggression and abuse, however, since most triggers of abuse are emotional (Lothstein, 2015), they can be mitigated or avoided in several ways. Social learning theory can also aid in reducing aggression by neutralizing its cause, by avoiding aversive situations, teach people how to evoke reactions that are not aggressive, and rewarding expedient behavior (Myers & Twenge, 2016).

Since aggression and abuse are linked with frustration (Lothstein, 2015), teaching abusers how to appropriately express themselves and their emotions aids in abandoning aggressive behavior (Myers & Twenge, 2016). Another important concept that can reduce aggression is self-control, by teaching abusers how to control their impulses and redirect their emotions in a more positive direction (Keatley, Allom, & Mullan, 2017).

Some psychoanalysts argue that aggressive people should vent their anger in order to reduce it, a process they call catharsis. However, research has indicated that is only increases aggressive behavior (Myers & Twenge, 2016).

In some cases, people fault the victim of domestic abuse for not leaving the relationship (Chaney & Saltzstein, 1998). Even though the victim shouldn’t be blamed, such beliefs can be explained through social identity theory, where the investigators/police, usually male dominant, tend not to identify with the victim, which is usually a female, since she belongs to the out-group (Chaney & Saltzstein, 1998) (Myers & Twenge, 2016).

Domestic abuse is a serious issue that ruins many lives, if you know someone that is suffering from such a situation; intervene and tell their friends, relatives or even the police, and do not fall for the bystander effect (Nida, 2013).

References

CFJ. (2018, November 20). What is domestic violence ? Retrieved from The Center for Family Justice (CFJ): https://centerforfamilyjustice.org/faq/domestic-violence/

Chaney, C. K., & Saltzstein, G. H. (1998). Democratic control and bureaucratic responsiveness: the police and domestic violence. American Journal of Political Science , 745-768.

Engle, G. L. (1981). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 101-124.

Kanopy . (2016). Behind closed doors - children who whitness domestic violence [ streaming video ]. Retrieved from Kanopy Streaming : https://livuk-kanopy-com.liverpool.idm.oclc.org/video/behind-closed-doors-children-who-witness-dom

Keatley, D. A., Allom, V., & Mullan, B. (2017). The effects of implicit and explicit self-control on self-reported aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 154-158.

Lothstein, L. M. (2015). Multi-tiered group therapy model to identify and treat the root causes of domestic violence: A proposal integrating current social neuroscience findings. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 210-240 .

Lubke, G. H., McArtor, D. B., Boomsma, D. I., & Bartels, M. (2018). Genetic and environmental contributions to the development of childhood aggression. Developmental Psychology, 39-50.

Myers, D., & Twenge, J. (2016). Aggression: hurting others. In Social Psychology 12th ed (pp. 296-332). New York : McGraw Hill.

Myers, D., & Twenge, J. (2016). Prejudice: disliking others. In Social Psychology 12th Ed (pp. 254-294). New York: McGraw Hill.

Nida, S. A. (2013). Bystander intervention and social psychology. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health.

Twenge, J., & Campbell, K. (2017). Gender and personality . In Personality Psychology (pp. 268-296). New York : Pearson.

 

 

  

Literature Review: The Effects of Self-Esteem versus Self Control on Raising Children

Research Question

            Is self-control a more effective measure than self-esteem for raising well-adjusted and higher achieving children?

Literature Review

Childhood is an important stage of psychological development, which has a lasting effect on people’s personalities and conduct throughout adulthood and the remainder of their lives (Twenge & Campbell, 2017), hence the description of childhood as “formative years” (Woodruff, Bolen, & Thomas, 2004). 

A socially well-adjusted child is one that distinguishes between the self and others, has the ability to understand, express, and regulate emotions, and possess the ability to feel, reason, and behave morally (Santrock, 2016).

The effects of self-esteem versus self-control on raising children were chosen for several reasons:

 The first is that the self-esteem movement which started in the 1970’s (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003) has been greatly influential in western society, and in child rearing literature (Brummelman, Thomaes, Nelemans, & Castro, 2017).

The second reason is that inflated praise of children has been the immediate byproduct of the self-esteem movement, which recent research indicates that it is negatively correlated to self-esteem (Brummelman, Thomaes, Nelemans, & Castro, 2017).

The third reason is that raising well-adjusted children is a complicated, laborious, and time-intensive process, which should be preparing children to be able to take care of themselves (Santrock, 2016). Therefore the effects of having children practice self-control and being achievement oriented, has been indicated by recent research to have a long-term positive impact on self-esteem and achievement (Baumiester & Tierney, 2012).

After presenting the reasons, what follows is: defining self-esteem, self-control, and their relationship with each other, and their impact on childhood development.

Self-esteem is defined as the person’s sense of self-worth and overall self-evaluation (Myers & Campbell, 2016), children high in self-esteem usually seek feelings of adequacy and connection with others (Brummelman, Thomaes, Nelemans, & Castro, 2017).

Self-control on the other hand is another self-concept, where individuals exert conscious control over their impulses and behaviors (Myers & Campbell, 2016). Self-control can be developed in children by establishing a reward and punishment system that is swiftly and consistently enforced by parents (Baumiester & Tierney, 2012).

A strong correlation exists between self-control and achievement, for individuals to be able to accomplish difficult tasks; they must be able to suppress the impulse for instant gratification (Fourie, 2017). Moreover, Walter Mischel conducted an experiment on children’s ability to delay gratification by having them stare at a marshmallow and telling them if they eat it directly they’d only have this one, however it they wait 15 minutes, they would get 2 marshmallows. Those that were able to delay gratification, also showed higher academic success (Mischel, et al., 2011).

There is a popular assumption that self-esteem is nurtured through praise, however this assumption is not supported scientifically. A 2017 journal article was produced as a result of a longitudinal study conducted in the Netherlands that studied the effect of praise on self-esteem. Its findings showed that moderate praise had no to minimal impact on self-esteem; however inflated praise had a negative impact by deflating self-esteem. Moreover, the same study also found that inflated praise was correlated with narcissism in children with high self-esteem, even though there is no direct correlation between self-esteem and narcissism in children (Brummelman, Thomaes, Nelemans, & Castro, 2017). Moreover, a 1990 research by Sandra Graham shows that praising children at mundane or easy tasks have the possibility to lower self-perceived competence (Graham, 1990).

Raising children’s self-esteem is not a direct and straightforward process; it can be nurtured indirectly though bonding with their parents, and having their parents show interest in their activities (Brummelman E. , et al., 2015)

As a conclusion, the research that was cited in this literature review indicated self-control resulted in well-adjusted and high achieving children (Baumiester & Tierney, 2012). Moreover, self-esteem appears to be a product of achievement (Brummelman E. , Thomaes, Nelemans, & Castro, 2017), where achievement builds a sense of worthiness, and when this worthiness is internalized into self-worth; it leads to higher levels of self-esteem (Baumiester & Tierney, 2012).

References

Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in Public Interst, 1-44.

Baumiester, R., & Tierney, J. (2012). Chapter 9: Raising strong children: self-esteem versus self-control. In Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest human Strength. New York: Penguin Group.

Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., Nelemans, S. A., de Castro, B. O., Overbeek, G., & Bushman, B. J. (2015). Origins of narcissim in children. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 3659–3662.

Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., Nelemans, S., & Castro, B. O. (2017). When parents praise inflates, childrens' self-esteem deflates. Child Development, 1799-1809.

Fourie, J. (2017). Want to be rich? be patient. Finweek, 6.

Graham, S. (1990). The down side of help: an attributional-developmental analysis of helping behavior as a low-ability cue. Journal of Educational Psychology, 7-14.

Mischel, W., Ayduk, O., Berman, M. G., Casey, B. J., Gotlib, I. H., Jonides, J., & Shoda, Y. (2011). ‘Willpower’ over the life span: decomposing self-regulation. Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience, 252-256.

Myers, D., & Campbell, J. (2016). The self in a social world. In Social Psychology (pp. 27-60). New York: McGraw Hill.

Santrock, J. S. (2016). Socioemotional development in early childhood. In Children 13th Edition (pp. 304-340). New York : McGraw Hill.

Twenge, J., & Campbell, K. (2017). Personality across the lifespan. In Personality Psychology (pp. 240-225). New York: Pearson.

Woodruff, C., Bolen, Y., & Thomas, B. (2004). A rationale for art education in the formative years: early childhood and elementary preservice teacher perspective. Review of Higher Education & Self-Learning, 106-110.

 

 

Cross-Cultural Analysis of Dependent Personality Disorder

Dependent personality disorder (DPD), according to the DSM V, is a personality disorder where the person is excessively reliant on others, characterized by clingy and submissive behavior (American Psychiatric Association , 2013). In order to properly assess the cultural implications of DPD, it is important to factor in how psychological knowledge is influenced by history, events, organizations, financial and ideopolitical interests (Laureate online education, 2016).

According to the sociologist Chris Jenks, culture is the collection of behaviors, customs, norms and values of a particular group of people or society. Culture is also a fluid concept where it influences individuals through cultural products such as books, media, songs etc. and is influenced by individuals, in particular those who produce cultural products.

Psychological knowledge, which is centered on cognition and behavior, can’t be detached from cultural imperatives (Jenks, 2005). This paired with the fact that psychology as a discipline was developed mostly in western societies, most notably Europe and the United States (Twenge & Campbell, 2017), resulted in a lot of psychological concepts which lacked in universality and reflected those cultures.

The DSM V which is a product of the American Psychiatric Association is no exception; it was developed in the United stated, by mostly white/male American psychologists (Laureate online education, 2016), to deal with psychological ailments of American individuals (Laureate online education, 2016).

What is normal is that which adheres to the norm, which is a cultural concept (Laureate online education, 2016). Geert Hofstede, developed what is called the Hofstede cultural dimensions by studying cultural norms (Hofstede Insights, 2018). One of the dimensions that were studied were individualism vs collectivism and according to Hofstede’s research, the United States and a majority of European countries ranked high in individualism, whereas a lot of middle eastern and east Asian societies ranked high in collectivism (Hofstede Insights, 2018).

A lot of DPD’s attributes that revolve around the notion of being submissive and dependent on others (American Psychiatric Association , 2013) are bound to the individualistic orientation of American society (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009). On the other hand, collectivistic countries, and most notably East Asian ones have a much higher threshold of dependability, and it is actually required of individuals in those cultures to be very collaborative, at even submissive at times (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009).

DPD’s culture specific attributes do not invalidate the disorder, especially when it comes to the United States (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009); however, it mounts the pressure to be more critical of the emphasis on biological and heritable aspects of psychological and psychiatric diagnoses, which is a recurring theme in the DSM (Laureate online education, 2016).

Moreover, DPD’s weak cross-cultural validity (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009) is a strong indication of the need for the development of culture-sensitive approaches, especially when it comes to psychological diagnoses (Laureate online education, 2016), moving away from the biomedical model in psychology and nearer to the biopsychosocial model, which is more comprehensive (Laureate online education, 2016).

References

American Psychiatric Association . (2013). Dependant personality disorder. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th Edition (pp. 675-678). Washington: American Psychiatric Association .

Chen, Y., Nettles, M., & Chen, S. (2009). Rethinking dependant personality disorder: comparing different human relatedness in cultural contexts. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 197(11):793-800.

Hofstede Insights. (2018). National Culture. Retrieved September 10, 2018, from Hofstede Insights: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/

Jenks, C. (2005). Culture 2nd edition. London: Routledge.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 1. the cultural definition of normality. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 1. the social construction of psychological knowledge. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 28). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 2. cross cultural psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 2. culture-sensitive approaches in psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Letherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, Nevember 10). Week 7: the biopsychosocial perspective. systems, holism and reductionism. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Culture and personality. In Personality Psychology (pp. 297-321). New York: Pearson.

Water, T. V., Suliman, S., & Seedat, S. (2016). Gender and cultural issues in psychiatric nosological classification systems. Cambridge University Press, 334-340.

 

Biopsychosocial Analysis of Mobile Phone Addiction

Modern mobile phones become small portable computers that can virtually do everything like a normal desktop computer (Adepu & Adler, 2016). Some of its most used functions, apart from using it as a phone are: multimedia device, social networking device, gaming console, internet browser (Adepu & Adler, 2016). However, mobile phones weren’t always as powerful a computer as they are now, not until the introduction of the first iPhone in 2007 did the smart phone movement properly gain momentum (Pressman, 2017).

            Since then, people have been becoming increasingly attached to their phones, and the frequency with which they check their phones have been increasing (Stickles, Kempema, & Brown, 2018). With some people it has become an addiction (Alter, 2017).

This leads us to the question, what makes mobile phones addictive?

In order to attempt to answer the question of this research paper, a hypothesis and null hypothesis will be set and compared with scientific biopsychosocial literature.

Hypothesis

The more immersive the mobile phone interface is, the more addictive it becomes.

Null Hypothesis

No link between mobile phone interface and mobile phone addiction.

Biopsychological approach:

Interaction with mobile phones occurs through the output methods of the device and the user’s visual, auditory and tactile senses (koing, 2010). However, the impact of visual perception in individuals that have all senses fully functional is greater than the rest of the senses (Kirsch, Herbort, Ullrich, & Kunde, 2017). This empirical fact contributes to the research that has been conducted on the evolution of mobile phones, whereas screens have become larger with the emergence of the smartphone, the user experience has become more immersive and enticing (Alter, 2017).

Moreover, a 2018 study found evidence to support the correlation between mobile phone addiction and craniovertebral angle and depression (Salvi & Battin, 2018).

Psychosocial Approach:

According to the neurobiologist Adam Alter, psychological drivers of behavioral addiction are social engagement, sense of effectiveness, mental stimulation and social support (Alter, 2017), Those drivers are being promoted by technology designers, especially social media applications and sites (Alter, 2017) which are proliferating with the advancement of the smartphone screen (Hao, Wang, & Xu, 2016).

Biosocial Approach:

The designers of today’s technology aim at breaking down the individual’s self-regulation mechanisms (Bosker, 2016) .This aim is promoted and facilitated by technology corporations that employ them (Alter, 2017). This can be demonstrated through social media sites that have a bottomless design interface and reward users with a sense of engagement, such as likes, followers, friends etc. (Alter, 2017). This behavioral addiction is similar to substance addiction because they activate the same brain areas (Alter, 2017), however, unlike substance addiction, it is socially normalized and can’t be easily perceived (Morrie, Constable, & Malison, 2017).

Conclusion

The hypothesis was approached on multiple levels of the system hierarchy of the biopsychosocial model (Engle, 1981), ranging from the organ (brain) system level reaching the society system level. However, the focus was on the person level in order to isolate variables which might reduce contextual predictive validity (Laureate online education, 2016). The hypothesis was not falsified, because it was supported with scientific literature.

References

Adepu, S., & Adler, R. F. (2016). A comparison of performance and preference on mobile devices vs. desktop computers. IEEE 7th Annual Ubiquitous Computing, Electronics & Mobile Communication Conference (UEMCON). IEEE.

Alter, A. (2017). Irresistible: the business of technology is the business of addiction . Saturday Evening Post, 12;14;88.

Bosker, B. (2016, November). Tristan harris believes silicon valley is addicting us to our phones. he's determined to make it stop. Atlantic, pp. 56-65.

Engle, G. L. (1981). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 101-124.

Freeman, J. (2005). Towards a definition of holism. British Journal of General Practice, 154-155.

Hao, Y., Wang, Z., & Xu, X. (2016). Empirical study on the interface and feature evolutions of mobile apps. In Lecture Notes In Computer Science (p. 657). Banff, Canada: Springer.

Kirsch, W., Herbort, O., Ullrich, B., & Kunde, W. (2017). On the origin of body-related influences on visual perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1222-1237.

koing, M. (2010). System and method for generating a message notification based on sensory detection. USPTO Patent Applications.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10). Week 8: applications of the biopsychosocial approach to health issues. smoking kills, so why do people do it? Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, Nevember 10). Week 7: the biopsychosocial perspective. systems, holism and reductionism. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 7: the biopsychosocial perspective. the biopsychosocial perspective of related health behaviour. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, Nevember 18). Week 8: applications of the biopsychosocial approach to health issues. does getting rich make us happier? Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 28). Week 8: applications of the biopsychosocial approach to health issues. why does childhood immunisation cause controversy? Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Leaureate Online Education B.V.

Morrie, Constable, & Malison. (2017). Shared microstructural features of behavioral and substance addictions revealed in areas of crossing fibers. Elsevier, Inc., 188-195.

Pressman, A. (2017, January 6). The iphone decade. Fortune , pp. 23-25.

Salvi, R., & Battin, S. (2018). Correlation of mibile phone addiction scale (mpas) score with craneovertebral angle, scapular index and becks depression inventory scores in young adults. International Journal of Physiotherapy, 7-12.

Stickles, J. L., Kempema, J. M., & Brown, L. H. (2018). Original contribution: effect of mobile phone proliferation on crash notification times and fatality rates. American Journal of Emergency Medicine , 24-26.

 

Attributes of Early Modern Psychology

 

Psychology in the early 20^th century was a relatively new discipline independent of philosophy that dealt with matters of the mind (Laureate online education, 2016). In its youth, it was evolving fundamentally in two ways, academically and therapeutically (Laureate online education , 2016).

Psychology as a science was greatly influenced by the German psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). Wundt was the founder of what is now known as structuralism in psychology (Laureate online education , 2016 ). Structuralism was concerned with analyzing mental processes, establishing relationships between those processes, and establishing psychological laws. Structuralism relied on psychological experiments and introspection (Chung & Hyland, Wundt's experimental psychology, 2011), however, one of Wundt’s disciples, Edward Titchner (1867-1927), rejected introspection as it was non-scientific (Chung & Hyland, Wundt and his students, 2011). Despite Titchner’s efforts in trying to make structuralism more scientific, and structuralism’s influence on experimental psychology, it was incapable of being classified as a science because it was too reductionist (Laureate online education , 2016 ).

Parallel to structuralism, the psychological approach of functionalism was being developed. William James (1842-1910) is the founder of functionalism, which inquired about the functions and purpose of behavior and mental processes (Chung & Hyland, James' approach to applied psychology, 2011). Functionalists relied on introspection, experimentation, and what they called the comparative method (Lang, 1994). Functionalism was criticized for using non-objective approaches such as introspection; it also used teleological arguments and imprecise ideas (Laureate online education , 2016 ). Despite its criticism, a lot of its principles were assimilated into behaviorism.

 Another academic approach that had an impact of psychology as a science was Gestalt psychology.

 Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), one of the founders of Gestalt school of thought stated: “When we perceive a set of stimuli, our mind forms a global whole, form, shape or pattern” (Koffka, 1935). Gestalt focused on the study of perception and also analyzed thought (Laureate online education, 2016). Another famous Gestalt psychologist was Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), he was known for experimenting with chimpanzees and his contribution to the understanding of learning (Ruiz & Sánchez, 2014). Even though Gestalt as a discipline is no longer prevalent, many of its concepts have been adopted on social and cognitive psychology (Laureate online education, 2016).

On the therapeutic side of psychology, psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) independently of experimental psychology (Laureate online education , 2016). Freud has two mental structures to explain mental processes; the first contained pre-consciousness, unconsciousness, and consciousness, and another composed of the ego, super ego and it (Twenge & Campbell, 2017). Psychoanalysis also resulted in neo-analytic theories, which were modified psychoanalytic theories (Twenge & Campbell, 2017). Despite psychoanalysis’s prevalence in modern arts and culture, it’s no longer part of western academic psychology because of its mythical elements such as the id and ego, questionable effects of its therapy, and its inability to predict behavior (Laureate online education , 2016).

Another movement on the therapeutic side of psychology was Humanistic psychology, which prevailed  in the 1950’s and 1960’s in response to dehumanizing and reductionist perspectives in psychology (Laureate online education , 2016). It’s most notable figures were Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) who created the hierarchy of needs (Maslow & Lowry, 1999) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) who developed the growth based psychotherapy model (KIRSCHENBAUM, 2007). It was critiqued for having concept that are hard to scientifically research, however it had a lasting influence on the importance of therapist’s attitudes.

References

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). James' approach to applied psychology. In History and philosophy of psychology (p. 98). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). The gestalt movement. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 131-136). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). Wundt and his students. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 57-60). West Sussex : John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). Wundt's experimental psychology. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 49-51). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

KIRSCHENBAUM, H. (2007). The life and work of Carl Rogers. Ross-on-Wye : PCCS Books.

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of gestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Lang, P. J. (1994). The varieties of emotional experience: A meditation on James-Lange theory. Psychological Review, 101;211.

Laureate online education . (2016 , November 2016). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. structuralism and functionalism. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10 ). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. humanistic psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. psychoanalysis. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. gestalt psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Maslow, A., & Lowry, R. (1999). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Wiley.

Ruiz, G., & Sánchez, N. (2014). Wolfgang Köhler's The Mentality of Apes and the animal psychology of his time. The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Psychodynamic approaches. In Personality Psychology: Understanding Yourself and Others (pp. 142-176). New York: Pearson.