Cross-Cultural Analysis of Dependent Personality Disorder

Dependent personality disorder (DPD), according to the DSM V, is a personality disorder where the person is excessively reliant on others, characterized by clingy and submissive behavior (American Psychiatric Association , 2013). In order to properly assess the cultural implications of DPD, it is important to factor in how psychological knowledge is influenced by history, events, organizations, financial and ideopolitical interests (Laureate online education, 2016).

According to the sociologist Chris Jenks, culture is the collection of behaviors, customs, norms and values of a particular group of people or society. Culture is also a fluid concept where it influences individuals through cultural products such as books, media, songs etc. and is influenced by individuals, in particular those who produce cultural products.

Psychological knowledge, which is centered on cognition and behavior, can’t be detached from cultural imperatives (Jenks, 2005). This paired with the fact that psychology as a discipline was developed mostly in western societies, most notably Europe and the United States (Twenge & Campbell, 2017), resulted in a lot of psychological concepts which lacked in universality and reflected those cultures.

The DSM V which is a product of the American Psychiatric Association is no exception; it was developed in the United stated, by mostly white/male American psychologists (Laureate online education, 2016), to deal with psychological ailments of American individuals (Laureate online education, 2016).

What is normal is that which adheres to the norm, which is a cultural concept (Laureate online education, 2016). Geert Hofstede, developed what is called the Hofstede cultural dimensions by studying cultural norms (Hofstede Insights, 2018). One of the dimensions that were studied were individualism vs collectivism and according to Hofstede’s research, the United States and a majority of European countries ranked high in individualism, whereas a lot of middle eastern and east Asian societies ranked high in collectivism (Hofstede Insights, 2018).

A lot of DPD’s attributes that revolve around the notion of being submissive and dependent on others (American Psychiatric Association , 2013) are bound to the individualistic orientation of American society (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009). On the other hand, collectivistic countries, and most notably East Asian ones have a much higher threshold of dependability, and it is actually required of individuals in those cultures to be very collaborative, at even submissive at times (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009).

DPD’s culture specific attributes do not invalidate the disorder, especially when it comes to the United States (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009); however, it mounts the pressure to be more critical of the emphasis on biological and heritable aspects of psychological and psychiatric diagnoses, which is a recurring theme in the DSM (Laureate online education, 2016).

Moreover, DPD’s weak cross-cultural validity (Chen, Nettles, & Chen, 2009) is a strong indication of the need for the development of culture-sensitive approaches, especially when it comes to psychological diagnoses (Laureate online education, 2016), moving away from the biomedical model in psychology and nearer to the biopsychosocial model, which is more comprehensive (Laureate online education, 2016).

References

American Psychiatric Association . (2013). Dependant personality disorder. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th Edition (pp. 675-678). Washington: American Psychiatric Association .

Chen, Y., Nettles, M., & Chen, S. (2009). Rethinking dependant personality disorder: comparing different human relatedness in cultural contexts. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 197(11):793-800.

Hofstede Insights. (2018). National Culture. Retrieved September 10, 2018, from Hofstede Insights: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/

Jenks, C. (2005). Culture 2nd edition. London: Routledge.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 1. the cultural definition of normality. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 1. the social construction of psychological knowledge. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 28). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 2. cross cultural psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). The social and cultural construction of psychology. part 2. culture-sensitive approaches in psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Letherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, Nevember 10). Week 7: the biopsychosocial perspective. systems, holism and reductionism. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Culture and personality. In Personality Psychology (pp. 297-321). New York: Pearson.

Water, T. V., Suliman, S., & Seedat, S. (2016). Gender and cultural issues in psychiatric nosological classification systems. Cambridge University Press, 334-340.

 

Biopsychosocial Analysis of Mobile Phone Addiction

Modern mobile phones become small portable computers that can virtually do everything like a normal desktop computer (Adepu & Adler, 2016). Some of its most used functions, apart from using it as a phone are: multimedia device, social networking device, gaming console, internet browser (Adepu & Adler, 2016). However, mobile phones weren’t always as powerful a computer as they are now, not until the introduction of the first iPhone in 2007 did the smart phone movement properly gain momentum (Pressman, 2017).

            Since then, people have been becoming increasingly attached to their phones, and the frequency with which they check their phones have been increasing (Stickles, Kempema, & Brown, 2018). With some people it has become an addiction (Alter, 2017).

This leads us to the question, what makes mobile phones addictive?

In order to attempt to answer the question of this research paper, a hypothesis and null hypothesis will be set and compared with scientific biopsychosocial literature.

Hypothesis

The more immersive the mobile phone interface is, the more addictive it becomes.

Null Hypothesis

No link between mobile phone interface and mobile phone addiction.

Biopsychological approach:

Interaction with mobile phones occurs through the output methods of the device and the user’s visual, auditory and tactile senses (koing, 2010). However, the impact of visual perception in individuals that have all senses fully functional is greater than the rest of the senses (Kirsch, Herbort, Ullrich, & Kunde, 2017). This empirical fact contributes to the research that has been conducted on the evolution of mobile phones, whereas screens have become larger with the emergence of the smartphone, the user experience has become more immersive and enticing (Alter, 2017).

Moreover, a 2018 study found evidence to support the correlation between mobile phone addiction and craniovertebral angle and depression (Salvi & Battin, 2018).

Psychosocial Approach:

According to the neurobiologist Adam Alter, psychological drivers of behavioral addiction are social engagement, sense of effectiveness, mental stimulation and social support (Alter, 2017), Those drivers are being promoted by technology designers, especially social media applications and sites (Alter, 2017) which are proliferating with the advancement of the smartphone screen (Hao, Wang, & Xu, 2016).

Biosocial Approach:

The designers of today’s technology aim at breaking down the individual’s self-regulation mechanisms (Bosker, 2016) .This aim is promoted and facilitated by technology corporations that employ them (Alter, 2017). This can be demonstrated through social media sites that have a bottomless design interface and reward users with a sense of engagement, such as likes, followers, friends etc. (Alter, 2017). This behavioral addiction is similar to substance addiction because they activate the same brain areas (Alter, 2017), however, unlike substance addiction, it is socially normalized and can’t be easily perceived (Morrie, Constable, & Malison, 2017).

Conclusion

The hypothesis was approached on multiple levels of the system hierarchy of the biopsychosocial model (Engle, 1981), ranging from the organ (brain) system level reaching the society system level. However, the focus was on the person level in order to isolate variables which might reduce contextual predictive validity (Laureate online education, 2016). The hypothesis was not falsified, because it was supported with scientific literature.

References

Adepu, S., & Adler, R. F. (2016). A comparison of performance and preference on mobile devices vs. desktop computers. IEEE 7th Annual Ubiquitous Computing, Electronics & Mobile Communication Conference (UEMCON). IEEE.

Alter, A. (2017). Irresistible: the business of technology is the business of addiction . Saturday Evening Post, 12;14;88.

Bosker, B. (2016, November). Tristan harris believes silicon valley is addicting us to our phones. he's determined to make it stop. Atlantic, pp. 56-65.

Engle, G. L. (1981). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 101-124.

Freeman, J. (2005). Towards a definition of holism. British Journal of General Practice, 154-155.

Hao, Y., Wang, Z., & Xu, X. (2016). Empirical study on the interface and feature evolutions of mobile apps. In Lecture Notes In Computer Science (p. 657). Banff, Canada: Springer.

Kirsch, W., Herbort, O., Ullrich, B., & Kunde, W. (2017). On the origin of body-related influences on visual perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1222-1237.

koing, M. (2010). System and method for generating a message notification based on sensory detection. USPTO Patent Applications.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10). Week 8: applications of the biopsychosocial approach to health issues. smoking kills, so why do people do it? Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, Nevember 10). Week 7: the biopsychosocial perspective. systems, holism and reductionism. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 7: the biopsychosocial perspective. the biopsychosocial perspective of related health behaviour. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, Nevember 18). Week 8: applications of the biopsychosocial approach to health issues. does getting rich make us happier? Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 28). Week 8: applications of the biopsychosocial approach to health issues. why does childhood immunisation cause controversy? Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Leaureate Online Education B.V.

Morrie, Constable, & Malison. (2017). Shared microstructural features of behavioral and substance addictions revealed in areas of crossing fibers. Elsevier, Inc., 188-195.

Pressman, A. (2017, January 6). The iphone decade. Fortune , pp. 23-25.

Salvi, R., & Battin, S. (2018). Correlation of mibile phone addiction scale (mpas) score with craneovertebral angle, scapular index and becks depression inventory scores in young adults. International Journal of Physiotherapy, 7-12.

Stickles, J. L., Kempema, J. M., & Brown, L. H. (2018). Original contribution: effect of mobile phone proliferation on crash notification times and fatality rates. American Journal of Emergency Medicine , 24-26.

 

Attributes of Early Modern Psychology

 

Psychology in the early 20^th century was a relatively new discipline independent of philosophy that dealt with matters of the mind (Laureate online education, 2016). In its youth, it was evolving fundamentally in two ways, academically and therapeutically (Laureate online education , 2016).

Psychology as a science was greatly influenced by the German psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). Wundt was the founder of what is now known as structuralism in psychology (Laureate online education , 2016 ). Structuralism was concerned with analyzing mental processes, establishing relationships between those processes, and establishing psychological laws. Structuralism relied on psychological experiments and introspection (Chung & Hyland, Wundt's experimental psychology, 2011), however, one of Wundt’s disciples, Edward Titchner (1867-1927), rejected introspection as it was non-scientific (Chung & Hyland, Wundt and his students, 2011). Despite Titchner’s efforts in trying to make structuralism more scientific, and structuralism’s influence on experimental psychology, it was incapable of being classified as a science because it was too reductionist (Laureate online education , 2016 ).

Parallel to structuralism, the psychological approach of functionalism was being developed. William James (1842-1910) is the founder of functionalism, which inquired about the functions and purpose of behavior and mental processes (Chung & Hyland, James' approach to applied psychology, 2011). Functionalists relied on introspection, experimentation, and what they called the comparative method (Lang, 1994). Functionalism was criticized for using non-objective approaches such as introspection; it also used teleological arguments and imprecise ideas (Laureate online education , 2016 ). Despite its criticism, a lot of its principles were assimilated into behaviorism.

 Another academic approach that had an impact of psychology as a science was Gestalt psychology.

 Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), one of the founders of Gestalt school of thought stated: “When we perceive a set of stimuli, our mind forms a global whole, form, shape or pattern” (Koffka, 1935). Gestalt focused on the study of perception and also analyzed thought (Laureate online education, 2016). Another famous Gestalt psychologist was Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), he was known for experimenting with chimpanzees and his contribution to the understanding of learning (Ruiz & Sánchez, 2014). Even though Gestalt as a discipline is no longer prevalent, many of its concepts have been adopted on social and cognitive psychology (Laureate online education, 2016).

On the therapeutic side of psychology, psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) independently of experimental psychology (Laureate online education , 2016). Freud has two mental structures to explain mental processes; the first contained pre-consciousness, unconsciousness, and consciousness, and another composed of the ego, super ego and it (Twenge & Campbell, 2017). Psychoanalysis also resulted in neo-analytic theories, which were modified psychoanalytic theories (Twenge & Campbell, 2017). Despite psychoanalysis’s prevalence in modern arts and culture, it’s no longer part of western academic psychology because of its mythical elements such as the id and ego, questionable effects of its therapy, and its inability to predict behavior (Laureate online education , 2016).

Another movement on the therapeutic side of psychology was Humanistic psychology, which prevailed  in the 1950’s and 1960’s in response to dehumanizing and reductionist perspectives in psychology (Laureate online education , 2016). It’s most notable figures were Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) who created the hierarchy of needs (Maslow & Lowry, 1999) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) who developed the growth based psychotherapy model (KIRSCHENBAUM, 2007). It was critiqued for having concept that are hard to scientifically research, however it had a lasting influence on the importance of therapist’s attitudes.

References

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). James' approach to applied psychology. In History and philosophy of psychology (p. 98). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). The gestalt movement. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 131-136). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). Wundt and his students. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 57-60). West Sussex : John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). Wundt's experimental psychology. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 49-51). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

KIRSCHENBAUM, H. (2007). The life and work of Carl Rogers. Ross-on-Wye : PCCS Books.

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of gestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Lang, P. J. (1994). The varieties of emotional experience: A meditation on James-Lange theory. Psychological Review, 101;211.

Laureate online education . (2016 , November 2016). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. structuralism and functionalism. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10 ). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. humanistic psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. psychoanalysis. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. gestalt psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Maslow, A., & Lowry, R. (1999). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Wiley.

Ruiz, G., & Sánchez, N. (2014). Wolfgang Köhler's The Mentality of Apes and the animal psychology of his time. The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Psychodynamic approaches. In Personality Psychology: Understanding Yourself and Others (pp. 142-176). New York: Pearson.

 

Psychology and the Scientific Theory

 

Psychology is the study of mental processes and behavior using the scientific method (Lauraete online education, 2016).  So, in order for psychology to qualify as a science, it should follow the scientific method of acquisition and creation of knowledge. Moreover, a method is considered scientific when it is contrasted with reality and explained with facts (On the method of psychology. an introduction to the comparative methodology of scientific research, 2014). Empirical science follows the hypothetic deductive method, where observations are used to generate hypotheses, which are then tested (Hyunjung & Ikseon, 2018).

In general, psychological research is either trying to describe or explain mental phenomena (Lauraete online education, 2016). Such research requires psychological questions to be approached either through quantitative, or qualitative, or both research methods (Lauraete online education, 2016). Qualitative research is usually descriptive in nature and is either used to formulate hypotheses or used for interpreting data and psychological phenomena (Denzin & Lincoln). Moreover, some qualitative data sources are: secondary data analysis, in depth interviews, and observations (Laureate online education, 2016). As for quantitative research, it’s numerical in nature, where information and findings can be expressed in numbers, and is used to test and explain hypotheses (Babbie, 2010). Some quantitative data sources are surveys, questionnaires, experiments, etc. (Laureate online education, 2016).

The following example will demonstrate the application of the hypothetic deductive method in psychological research:

A team of researchers observed that labor productivity in open office space environments was higher than similar companies that used cubicles and separated office space. (Kima, Candidoa, Thomas, & Deara, 2016)

Based on that observation a list of research questions was presented, which were:

a.       How strong is the correlation between non-territorial work environment and employee productivity? (correlational/quantitative)

b.      Why do open office spaces have a positive effect on productivity? (explanatory/qualitative)

In reference to the presented research questions, a literature review on the topic of productivity was conducted, and evidence of a strong causal relationship between productivity and low levels of anxiety was demonstrated (C.A., P., A., S.S., & L., 2014). Building on the observation and literature review, the following hypotheses are set to be tested and falsified:

H (a): Non-territorial office spaces are highly correlated to employee productivity.

H0 (a): Productivity level in non-territorial and closed office spaces is the same.

H (b) workers in open office spaces have lower levels of anxiety than those in closed office spaces.

H0 (b) workers in open and closed office spaces have similar levels of anxiety.

A series of experiments and surveys were devised to test the above hypotheses quantitatively.

In the above example we used two types of hypotheses, the hypothesis H (a) and H (b) and the null hypothesis H0 (a) and H0 (b). The directional hypothesis is the speculative statement which is being tested; the null hypothesis’s aim is to falsify the hypothesis (Gonzalez, 2018).

The findings of the above example should be presented in a scientific report, which includes:

·         Title of the research

·         Author’s name and affiliation

·         Abstract

·         Introduction

·         Research methods

·         Results

·         A critical analysis of the results, their limitations and suggestions

·         Reference and citations

The report is also reviewed by an editor, or peer reviewed, or both prior to publication (Laureate online education, 2016).

References

Babbie, E. R. (2010). Organizing your social sciences research paper: quantitative methods. Retrieved July 19, 2018, from UCS Library: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/quantitative

C.A., B., P., V., A., V. S., S.S., T., & L., H.-V. R. (2014). Health-related quality of life and productivity losses in patients with depression and anxiety disorders. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine., 56:420-424.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (n.d.). Organizing your social sciences research paper: qualitative methods. Retrieved 7 19, 2018, from UCS Libraries: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/qualitative

Gonzalez, K. (2018). What is a null hypothesis? - definition & examples. Retrieved 7 19, 2018, from Study: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-null-hypothesis-definition-examples.html

Hyunjung, J., & Ikseon, C. (2018). The role of argumentation in hypothetico-deductive reasoning during problem-based learning in medical education: a conceptual framework. Interdisciplinary Journal Of Problem-Based Learning, 12.

Kima, J., Candidoa, C. a., Thomas, L., & Deara, R. d. (2016). Desk ownership in the workplace: The effect of non-territorial working on employee workplace satisfaction, perceived productivity and health. Building and Environment, 103:203-214.

Lauraete online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. part 1 science hypotheses and theories. the scientific method. part 1. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. part 1 science hypotheses and theories. The scientific method. part 2. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 3: the scientific status of psychology. Part 2 quantitative and qualitative methods in psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 4: The scientific status of psychology. Part 3 sources of data and evidence in psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 4: the scientific status of psychology. part 3 the scientific report. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

On the method of psychology. an introduction to the comparative methodology of scientific research. (2014). Poznań studies in the philosophy of the sciences and the humanities, p. 61.

 

 

A Critique of the Body and Mind Problem

 

A Critique of the Body and Mind Problem

The mind and brain debate is a historical debate of the nature of the mind, soul, spirit, essence, etc. which dates back to the classical era.  To summarize, there are two major schools of thought, that claims that the mind is of a single nature and it’s called Monism. Under monism there are also two minor schools, Idealists, those that emphasize ideas, and Materialists, those that have a mechanistic view of the world, where everything operates under the principle of determinism. The second major school of thought is that of Dualism, which claims that there are two worlds or natures of things. Some of the most notable thinkers and ideas are: Aristotle, the world is split into the material world and the rational world. Descartes, the mind and brain are of two different natures but interact with each other, he also argued that the key to all knowledge is reason, hence the term Cartesian rationalism. A third school is that of empiricism, which also stated that body and mind are different stated, but physical principles also govern the mind. (Laureate Online Education , 2016)

                In today’s world, and with the prevalence of science, one might assume notion that the mind and the brain are the same thing, without much investigation. However, as mentioned in the summary earlier, the mind-body problem has been examined extensively through history. One of the most notable philosophers that tackled the subject was Descartes. His approach to the mind body problem stemmed from trying to establish a method of absolute certainty, free from confusion, conflict, and beyond doubt and skepticism. After exercising his methods of doubt, he concluded that the only thing that can’t be doubted is, cogito ergo sum, I think; therefore I am. He reasoned that we can doubt our bodies and still exist; hence we are thinking things (Chung & Hyland, 2012).

                If one wants to rephrase Descartes’s reasoning, one could say that he believed that thought precedes existence, but that begs the question, how can you think if you did not exist? It simply can’t be. That’s why dualism was essential for Descartes’s theory to be valid; the mind must be of a different nature than the body in order for reason to precede existence.

                Descartes demonstrated the significance of dualism in the mind-body problem, especially in an era where the philosophy of science was in its early ages. However, in present day and after the tremendous advancement in technology, neurology, and psychology, Monism, and in particular materialism seems more relatable. For one, we perceive the dual nature of the computer experience, where we interact with the hardware to manipulate the software, and the software appears in a different mode from the hardware, does that make them of different natures? Is the software metaphysical?

                To conclude, the mind-body debate allows us to see how interested we are to know who we are and how we think, and how our environment and advancement in literature and science contributed to the process of figuring out our minds.

Works Cited

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2012). The Body and Mind Problem: Dualism. In M. C. Chung, & M. E. Hyland, History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 64-68). West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

Laureate Online Education . (2016, 11 10). The Antecedents of Psychology: Philosophy. Week 1: Human Behaviour, Is It All In The Brain or Mind? . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education.