Attributes of Early Modern Psychology

 

Psychology in the early 20^th century was a relatively new discipline independent of philosophy that dealt with matters of the mind (Laureate online education, 2016). In its youth, it was evolving fundamentally in two ways, academically and therapeutically (Laureate online education , 2016).

Psychology as a science was greatly influenced by the German psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). Wundt was the founder of what is now known as structuralism in psychology (Laureate online education , 2016 ). Structuralism was concerned with analyzing mental processes, establishing relationships between those processes, and establishing psychological laws. Structuralism relied on psychological experiments and introspection (Chung & Hyland, Wundt's experimental psychology, 2011), however, one of Wundt’s disciples, Edward Titchner (1867-1927), rejected introspection as it was non-scientific (Chung & Hyland, Wundt and his students, 2011). Despite Titchner’s efforts in trying to make structuralism more scientific, and structuralism’s influence on experimental psychology, it was incapable of being classified as a science because it was too reductionist (Laureate online education , 2016 ).

Parallel to structuralism, the psychological approach of functionalism was being developed. William James (1842-1910) is the founder of functionalism, which inquired about the functions and purpose of behavior and mental processes (Chung & Hyland, James' approach to applied psychology, 2011). Functionalists relied on introspection, experimentation, and what they called the comparative method (Lang, 1994). Functionalism was criticized for using non-objective approaches such as introspection; it also used teleological arguments and imprecise ideas (Laureate online education , 2016 ). Despite its criticism, a lot of its principles were assimilated into behaviorism.

 Another academic approach that had an impact of psychology as a science was Gestalt psychology.

 Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), one of the founders of Gestalt school of thought stated: “When we perceive a set of stimuli, our mind forms a global whole, form, shape or pattern” (Koffka, 1935). Gestalt focused on the study of perception and also analyzed thought (Laureate online education, 2016). Another famous Gestalt psychologist was Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), he was known for experimenting with chimpanzees and his contribution to the understanding of learning (Ruiz & Sánchez, 2014). Even though Gestalt as a discipline is no longer prevalent, many of its concepts have been adopted on social and cognitive psychology (Laureate online education, 2016).

On the therapeutic side of psychology, psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) independently of experimental psychology (Laureate online education , 2016). Freud has two mental structures to explain mental processes; the first contained pre-consciousness, unconsciousness, and consciousness, and another composed of the ego, super ego and it (Twenge & Campbell, 2017). Psychoanalysis also resulted in neo-analytic theories, which were modified psychoanalytic theories (Twenge & Campbell, 2017). Despite psychoanalysis’s prevalence in modern arts and culture, it’s no longer part of western academic psychology because of its mythical elements such as the id and ego, questionable effects of its therapy, and its inability to predict behavior (Laureate online education , 2016).

Another movement on the therapeutic side of psychology was Humanistic psychology, which prevailed  in the 1950’s and 1960’s in response to dehumanizing and reductionist perspectives in psychology (Laureate online education , 2016). It’s most notable figures were Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) who created the hierarchy of needs (Maslow & Lowry, 1999) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) who developed the growth based psychotherapy model (KIRSCHENBAUM, 2007). It was critiqued for having concept that are hard to scientifically research, however it had a lasting influence on the importance of therapist’s attitudes.

References

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). James' approach to applied psychology. In History and philosophy of psychology (p. 98). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). The gestalt movement. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 131-136). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). Wundt and his students. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 57-60). West Sussex : John Wiley and Sons.

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2011). Wundt's experimental psychology. In History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 49-51). West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

KIRSCHENBAUM, H. (2007). The life and work of Carl Rogers. Ross-on-Wye : PCCS Books.

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of gestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Lang, P. J. (1994). The varieties of emotional experience: A meditation on James-Lange theory. Psychological Review, 101;211.

Laureate online education . (2016 , November 2016). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. structuralism and functionalism. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10 ). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. humanistic psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education . (2016, November 10). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. psychoanalysis. Mind, Brain and Behavior . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 5: conceptual and historical paradigms in psychology: a critical analysis. part 1. gestalt psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Maslow, A., & Lowry, R. (1999). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Wiley.

Ruiz, G., & Sánchez, N. (2014). Wolfgang Köhler's The Mentality of Apes and the animal psychology of his time. The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Psychodynamic approaches. In Personality Psychology: Understanding Yourself and Others (pp. 142-176). New York: Pearson.

 

Psychology and the Scientific Theory

 

Psychology is the study of mental processes and behavior using the scientific method (Lauraete online education, 2016).  So, in order for psychology to qualify as a science, it should follow the scientific method of acquisition and creation of knowledge. Moreover, a method is considered scientific when it is contrasted with reality and explained with facts (On the method of psychology. an introduction to the comparative methodology of scientific research, 2014). Empirical science follows the hypothetic deductive method, where observations are used to generate hypotheses, which are then tested (Hyunjung & Ikseon, 2018).

In general, psychological research is either trying to describe or explain mental phenomena (Lauraete online education, 2016). Such research requires psychological questions to be approached either through quantitative, or qualitative, or both research methods (Lauraete online education, 2016). Qualitative research is usually descriptive in nature and is either used to formulate hypotheses or used for interpreting data and psychological phenomena (Denzin & Lincoln). Moreover, some qualitative data sources are: secondary data analysis, in depth interviews, and observations (Laureate online education, 2016). As for quantitative research, it’s numerical in nature, where information and findings can be expressed in numbers, and is used to test and explain hypotheses (Babbie, 2010). Some quantitative data sources are surveys, questionnaires, experiments, etc. (Laureate online education, 2016).

The following example will demonstrate the application of the hypothetic deductive method in psychological research:

A team of researchers observed that labor productivity in open office space environments was higher than similar companies that used cubicles and separated office space. (Kima, Candidoa, Thomas, & Deara, 2016)

Based on that observation a list of research questions was presented, which were:

a.       How strong is the correlation between non-territorial work environment and employee productivity? (correlational/quantitative)

b.      Why do open office spaces have a positive effect on productivity? (explanatory/qualitative)

In reference to the presented research questions, a literature review on the topic of productivity was conducted, and evidence of a strong causal relationship between productivity and low levels of anxiety was demonstrated (C.A., P., A., S.S., & L., 2014). Building on the observation and literature review, the following hypotheses are set to be tested and falsified:

H (a): Non-territorial office spaces are highly correlated to employee productivity.

H0 (a): Productivity level in non-territorial and closed office spaces is the same.

H (b) workers in open office spaces have lower levels of anxiety than those in closed office spaces.

H0 (b) workers in open and closed office spaces have similar levels of anxiety.

A series of experiments and surveys were devised to test the above hypotheses quantitatively.

In the above example we used two types of hypotheses, the hypothesis H (a) and H (b) and the null hypothesis H0 (a) and H0 (b). The directional hypothesis is the speculative statement which is being tested; the null hypothesis’s aim is to falsify the hypothesis (Gonzalez, 2018).

The findings of the above example should be presented in a scientific report, which includes:

·         Title of the research

·         Author’s name and affiliation

·         Abstract

·         Introduction

·         Research methods

·         Results

·         A critical analysis of the results, their limitations and suggestions

·         Reference and citations

The report is also reviewed by an editor, or peer reviewed, or both prior to publication (Laureate online education, 2016).

References

Babbie, E. R. (2010). Organizing your social sciences research paper: quantitative methods. Retrieved July 19, 2018, from UCS Library: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/quantitative

C.A., B., P., V., A., V. S., S.S., T., & L., H.-V. R. (2014). Health-related quality of life and productivity losses in patients with depression and anxiety disorders. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine., 56:420-424.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (n.d.). Organizing your social sciences research paper: qualitative methods. Retrieved 7 19, 2018, from UCS Libraries: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/qualitative

Gonzalez, K. (2018). What is a null hypothesis? - definition & examples. Retrieved 7 19, 2018, from Study: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-null-hypothesis-definition-examples.html

Hyunjung, J., & Ikseon, C. (2018). The role of argumentation in hypothetico-deductive reasoning during problem-based learning in medical education: a conceptual framework. Interdisciplinary Journal Of Problem-Based Learning, 12.

Kima, J., Candidoa, C. a., Thomas, L., & Deara, R. d. (2016). Desk ownership in the workplace: The effect of non-territorial working on employee workplace satisfaction, perceived productivity and health. Building and Environment, 103:203-214.

Lauraete online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. part 1 science hypotheses and theories. the scientific method. part 1. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, December 20). Week 2: the scientific status of psychology. part 1 science hypotheses and theories. The scientific method. part 2. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 3: the scientific status of psychology. Part 2 quantitative and qualitative methods in psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 4: The scientific status of psychology. Part 3 sources of data and evidence in psychology. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

Laureate online education. (2016, November 10). Week 4: the scientific status of psychology. part 3 the scientific report. Mind, Brain and Behavior. Netherlands: Laureate Online Education B.V.

On the method of psychology. an introduction to the comparative methodology of scientific research. (2014). Poznań studies in the philosophy of the sciences and the humanities, p. 61.

 

 

A Critique of the Body and Mind Problem

 

A Critique of the Body and Mind Problem

The mind and brain debate is a historical debate of the nature of the mind, soul, spirit, essence, etc. which dates back to the classical era.  To summarize, there are two major schools of thought, that claims that the mind is of a single nature and it’s called Monism. Under monism there are also two minor schools, Idealists, those that emphasize ideas, and Materialists, those that have a mechanistic view of the world, where everything operates under the principle of determinism. The second major school of thought is that of Dualism, which claims that there are two worlds or natures of things. Some of the most notable thinkers and ideas are: Aristotle, the world is split into the material world and the rational world. Descartes, the mind and brain are of two different natures but interact with each other, he also argued that the key to all knowledge is reason, hence the term Cartesian rationalism. A third school is that of empiricism, which also stated that body and mind are different stated, but physical principles also govern the mind. (Laureate Online Education , 2016)

                In today’s world, and with the prevalence of science, one might assume notion that the mind and the brain are the same thing, without much investigation. However, as mentioned in the summary earlier, the mind-body problem has been examined extensively through history. One of the most notable philosophers that tackled the subject was Descartes. His approach to the mind body problem stemmed from trying to establish a method of absolute certainty, free from confusion, conflict, and beyond doubt and skepticism. After exercising his methods of doubt, he concluded that the only thing that can’t be doubted is, cogito ergo sum, I think; therefore I am. He reasoned that we can doubt our bodies and still exist; hence we are thinking things (Chung & Hyland, 2012).

                If one wants to rephrase Descartes’s reasoning, one could say that he believed that thought precedes existence, but that begs the question, how can you think if you did not exist? It simply can’t be. That’s why dualism was essential for Descartes’s theory to be valid; the mind must be of a different nature than the body in order for reason to precede existence.

                Descartes demonstrated the significance of dualism in the mind-body problem, especially in an era where the philosophy of science was in its early ages. However, in present day and after the tremendous advancement in technology, neurology, and psychology, Monism, and in particular materialism seems more relatable. For one, we perceive the dual nature of the computer experience, where we interact with the hardware to manipulate the software, and the software appears in a different mode from the hardware, does that make them of different natures? Is the software metaphysical?

                To conclude, the mind-body debate allows us to see how interested we are to know who we are and how we think, and how our environment and advancement in literature and science contributed to the process of figuring out our minds.

Works Cited

Chung, M. C., & Hyland, M. E. (2012). The Body and Mind Problem: Dualism. In M. C. Chung, & M. E. Hyland, History and Philosophy of Psychology (pp. 64-68). West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

Laureate Online Education . (2016, 11 10). The Antecedents of Psychology: Philosophy. Week 1: Human Behaviour, Is It All In The Brain or Mind? . Netherlands: Laureate Online Education.

 

 

The Sage

To my loving grandfather Assaf Dib (1941-2017)

A life rich in ups and downs,
Journeys full of smiles and frowns;

Uphill roads of treacherous grounds:

A focused mind and reason sound.

Warrior of the noble kind;

Tenacious spirit, resolute mind,

Generous soul, temperament meek.

Alas this reality, by nature bleak.

Now but a frame of memories past,

A pool of tears, the sight of him last,

A challenge pledged to the test of time,

In their hearts, an eternal shrine.

Redundant Lebanese Thought

“An insight into why Lebanese history repeats itself”

      

  

  Any person that has lived in Lebanon for a few months, would sense that daily life eventually becomes quite mundane and repetitive. Even the avant-garde societal faction thinks in a highly one dimensional manner.  People do express their discomfort about their socio-political situation, but it ends there. They are incapable of changing it, not because they are not willing, but they are not able to.

                

Abraham Maslow said: “If the only tool you have is a hammer, you will tend to see all problems as a nail”. This is one of the reasons why we are stuck in a vicious cycle of discomfort in Lebanon, and the region in general. We have a limited repertoire of intellectual tools to deal with problems that arise in front of us.

               

  This scarcity in analytical tools is rooted in our deeply conservative mentality. In order to elaborate this hypothesis, you have to take into consideration the following factors.

1.       Intelligence

2.       Knowledge

3.       Execution

4.       Results

Intelligence is defined by Webster’s as "the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations". Thus, in order to deal with situations adequately, we must be able to acquire relevant knowledge which is effective in dealing with those trying situations. At the same time, we also must be capable of using it.

However, before we get to the execution part, what does intelligence and knowledge have to do with being conservative? The answer is the influence of personality traits on learning and motivation.  Conservative individuals score very high on the closed minded personality trail measures, whereas liberal individuals are more open to new experiences and seek novel experiences and ideas.

Therefore if we are dealing with problems or trying situations intelligently, it would require from us to acquire new knowledge.  How will we be capable of doing so if we cannot overcome our bias and thought preference? Moreover, even if we are capable of acquiring that knowledge, will we be willing to change what we are extremely accustomed to?

I believe that the preceding argument is indicative of why we are incapable of proper execution of change. Moreover, it provokes an endless loop of melancholic thought and behavior. The results may be quite grim; however, it doesn't mean that change isn't possible. It is, but it requires too much damn effort.  

An easier method of change would be to stop pursuing change consciously, because the means are producing redundant results, which in turn are keeping the progress wheel stagnant.  Since we are a conservative nation, we would be more at ease if we accept the current decadent culture, and learn how to work its dynamics more efficiently. Eventually things will change if we truly find out that we can’t live in such a system, because change then would be much more synergetic and has profound natural momentum and direction.

However, the irony of the matter is, as long as change is required, liberal thought will also be required. But Liberal thought will always create discomfort in conservative nations. Therefore the fate of the Lebanese will remain the same due to their conservative identity with liberal whims. 

The Human Rage

Be it a tick or a tock

the gate was closed and now unlocked.

It is a feeling that keeps him kneeling

it is a feeling and it is here to stay,

it is not fear, for it keeps you not at bay.

 It is a feeling that emancipates

however unknowingly, you become the wolf’s bait.

You’re overwhelmed and want to annihilate

that damn prick who thinks he’s great.

It is neither resentment nor hate

for with his mother you would mate.

Pride was perhaps what had him in my way

what a useless feeling for him to feel anyway.

It got him shouting, cursing, and frustrated

then his countenance was obliterated.

Perhaps that feeling was of amelioration

that feeds of his devastation.

A feeling that is primal to the human race

that feeling was definitely rage.

Anti-purposeful Meaning

           

     When talking about ‘meaning’ in a general sense, it is usually accompanied by ‘purpose’; more specifically, the purpose is that of life. To most philosophical theories, you cannot have one without the other.            

  There is no exact definition of meaning, but the one that can be most accurate is given by an online dictionary, which states “meaning is the sense or significance of a word, sentence, symbol, etc.; import; semantic or lexical content”. Also, the definition of purpose is “the reason for which something is done or created or for which something exists”.           

 The notion that purpose precedes meaning seems unappealing. This is due to the unanswerable questions that this notion provokes, which makes the concept of meaning very restricted, and gives it a doctrine-like nature.
          

  The fundamental questions that purpose poses are “why” questions. Therefore, when asked about life, the answers tend to be weak because they are oversimplifications. Also, most explanations imply that we have to work our way into having a purposeful life. This method is highly unperceptive because it neglects a lot of human factors, especially emotions.          

  Having a universal explanation for something so abstract and vast like life is useless and dull, for life goes beyond thought and purpose. Even more, it is the epitome of human arrogance and narcissism to claim that life is not worth living without purpose.         

   Since meaning is derived from the significance of things, and since different people find different things significant to them, it makes more sense for the meaning of life to be subjective. It also makes more sense that a purposeful life which adheres to a doctrine is likely to become meaningless.           

 Things that are most significant to us are those that give us pleasure, but this does not mean that a hedonistic life is a meaningful one, for significant pleasures are not restricted to bodily gratification.        

    If one must give a structure for meaning, it is likely to be general and applicable for different types of people that value different things – or simply relative. One theory that is this way is the “Engine Theory”. This theory states that in order to derive meaning, three elements must be present, which are: thought – which has a similar function to the engine lubricant, emotions – which have a similar function to the engine pistons, and personal experiences – which share the function of the driver. Remove any of those three elements and you will not be able to properly derive meaning. Similarly, if you remove any of those elements from a conventional car, it cannot go anywhere.        

    It might be appealing to relate the Engine Theory to Pragmatism. This is due to the significance of experiences. However, unlike the Engine Theory, Pragmatism states that meaning is only derived or discovered through experiences.        

    Similarly, the suggested theory also shares attributes with the theory of Existentialism, but it is different because Existentialism decrees that meaning is only derived through thoughts.         

   Common grounds can be found between Nihilism and the Engine Theory, since both asserts that there is no purpose to life. But unlike the Engine Theory, Nihilism requires that purpose precedes meaning, thus rendering the concept of meaning void.        

    The discontent that people experience does not have to do with the meaning of life, because everyone is living a meaningful life, especially since the concept of meaning is subjective. It is more likely that it arises from uncertainty and its significance. People become discontent when they are uncertain of what is significant to them, which keeps them from knowing what means to them; thus, they ironically feel as if their life has no meaning and their dissatisfaction becomes greater and grows exponentially.         

   Since the concept of living a meaningful life is significant to most people, and since everyone is, in fact, living a meaningful life, this means that knowing that we are living a meaningful life ideally is enough to minimize the dissatisfaction that people experience from that subject, without going into its meticulous details. However, the ironic reality is that everyone is dissatisfied because “meaning” is ubiquitous, which renders the “purpose” of having a meaningful life untenable.